It is not possible to pinpoint a distinct key factor to describe why ships changed in the middle ages, partly because there are several factors that affected change, and also evidence and sources are scarce for this time period so there is no concrete evidence to suggest ships changed for a particular reason. It is difficult to identify invention before the Middle Ages as it was not documented before then. Documentation of naval activity is also limited for this time period as a Royal Navy was not in existence, so there is little record of activities of ships and men in the navy. During the Middle Ages, ships generally became a significant part of society, used for trade, warfare and the early stages of discovery and exploration. The many modifications to ships, in effect led to different varieties of ship, and so could eventually be separated into merchant and naval ships. [1]
It is very probable from the evidence we have of shipwrecks and certain documentation that ships were modified and altered when factors such as challenging currents and wind directions disturbed their path of travel, for example, directing a ship out of the Mediterranean sea is very problematic to a ship without the use of oars and both square and lateen sails.[2]
From the twelfth century ship size increased steadily among the Byzantium and Muslim worlds. There is evidence to suggest the Italians had taken temporary leads regarding the size and technological potential of their ships during the First Crusade. By the thirteenth century Venice, Genoa and Pisa were creating large round ships which usually had up to three decks and three masts. From the late thirteenth century the Genoese, Venetians and Florentines further improved the size and seaworthiness of their galleys, finally developing the Great Galleys. This type of ship was modified to make use of naval guns designed just above the waterline in order to break an enemy’s outrigger.[3] The Crusades generated a huge and swift demand for shipping services, over long distances. As a result of this, major Italian towns benefitted from great success between the tenth and thirteenth centuries.[4]
The increase in ship size appears to have had a similar effect with regards to larger cargo capacity, for example, a bigger ship will have room for more cargo, and so this could have led to possibilities of travelling further away and for longer periods of time. Merchants were more likely to use ships with a higher capacity for the speedy transport of cargo in comparison to slow and smaller vessels. They would also want to use a ship that does not require too many men so they are not paying more wages in comparison to trade profit. The change for larger capacity seems to have lead to improvement and modifications of the sails on a ship. The changes in the ships sails made a huge difference to the speed and efficiency of the ship. Square sails made movement and speed very limited, especially if the wind is not behind the sail. Lateen sails are not as limited as square sails, however they needed to be taken down in order to manoeuvre, and this relied on manpower and so were not very cost effective. The combination of the two types of sails proved very successful as the travelling speed of a ship with both sails is generally faster.[5]
Shipwrights must have had long and carefully supervised training, however little is actually documented or known about this. Some shipbuilders seem to have been indifferent about new ideas, which raises the suggestion that there must have been a fundamental desire or need for them to advance with the changes. The changes were often expensive and so shipbuilders would not want to risk their money on something they were not sure would work, particularly if the ships that were already in use were still capable of the job they were created for and popular among the men who bought and used them. However, for those willing to experiment, the changes may have arisen from the development of better ship building equipment, giving them opportunities for further progression in ship building. A huge factor in ship development is speed of transportation of trade items and the cost effectiveness of the operation. Another huge factor that may have pioneered change or modifications is capacity of the vessel and its usefulness. Some shipbuilders took inspiration from other foreign vessels to slightly adapt them to suit the current demands of their own economies.[6]
Some technological change and innovation may have been driven by mercantile wars as well as peaceful trading. In the late thirteenth century, when the Hansa was at war with Norway, the League copied the English example and fitted its large cogs with fighting towers at the bow and stern, in order to give the crossbowmen the highest possible firing position to gain advantage over enemies. Since the fighting platforms were also intended to offer protection from the weather, they were later given walls making up the cabin.[7]
The Carrack is an example of change. This was a fusion of a Cog constructed with the methods used on a Caravel. It was a three, sometimes four masted sailing ship developed in the Atlantic Ocean by the Portuguese. It had a rounded stern, after castle and forecastle and implemented the use of both square and lateen sails.[8] In the early Middle Ages, the Carrack was an ideal vessel for North Sea coastal trade, aiding the establishment of waterside markets. The Carrack could carry up to three hundred tonnes of cargo and was manned by approximately forty men, it was unable to carry more cargo than the Cog. The ship had living accommodation in the after castle similar to the Cog, but also in the forecastle too. The crows nest was also installed on the top mast as a look out position and further fighting platform. However the Carrack was still not as advanced as the Cog as it did not have a water tight deck. [9] It was extremely stable on heavy seas and had plenty of room for provisions for long voyages. The Portuguese and the Spanish later explored in these vessels in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, notably the Santa Maria with Columbus, and the Sao Gabriel with Vasco da Gama. It was hard to attack by smaller crafts, which was very useful in the East Indies where ships often came under attack. Their ability to carry plenty of targets and provisions made them independent of ports en route to their destination, so they had a longer range using the most efficient route. The four sails and advanced rigging allowed much flexibility. The large square sail allowed propulsion of the vessel, however this was reduced during storms. The bow and stern sails were used for manoeuvring and the lateen sails meant the ship could sail across the winds. The stable decks allowed the placement of guns, as a result of this the Carrack was prone to capsizing in strong winds.[10]
The Caravel was a small highly manoeuvrable two or three masted square and lateen rigged ship that was created and used by the Portuguese, and also the Spanish. It was originally developed under the orders of Henry the Navigator and was used for sailing upriver in shallow coastal waters. The exploration done with Caravels made the spice trade possible for the Portuguese and the Spanish. It was later replaced by a larger Nau as this was more profitable for trading. Towards the end of the fifteenth century it was occasionally modified to have the same rig as a Carrack.[11]
Galleys were an ancient ship propelled entirely by oarsmen and were built purposefully for military use. They were not very good trading vessels as cargo space was limited due to the size of the crew needed to man the oars.[12] Many Galleys had masts and sails that were used when the wind was favourable. Medieval Mediterranean states such as Venice, Pisa and Genoa used Galleys until the ocean going Man of War put them out of use to a large extent. Medieval Galleys also pioneered the use of naval guns that were pointed forward as a supplement to an above waterline beak designed to break enemies’ outrigger.[13]
The Cog seems to have proved the most successful ship that had been altered and used throughout the Middle Ages. The ship was usually flat bottomed with steeply angled stem and stern posts, carrying square rigged sails on its central mast. It first appeared around the tenth century but was widely used by the twelfth century. They could be handled by a smaller crew and so reduced operational costs, useful for trade and warfare.[14] When the ship was ready to come ashore, it would be brought in at a high tide, making it possible for horse drawn carts to have direct access for loading and unloading.[15] The early Cogs were influenced by the Knarr. The evidence suggests it originated in the Frisian coasts, the ship even featured on Frisian coins. It has been suggested the rise of trade and commerce along with the founding of the Hanseatic League eventually pioneered the Hanseatic Cog, which gained a stern rudder in the 1200’s.[16] The Hanseatic League or the Hansa was an alliance of Medieval cities and maritime power. The transformation of the Cog into a seagoing trader came during a period of intense trading between the West and the East, and also as a direct answer to the closure of the Western entrance of Limfjord. The passage between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea was completely blocked by sand by the twelfth century and so the Cog was developed to cope with these changes. Cogs were easily converted from mercantile vessels into naval vessels. The Cog with a permanent or temporary forecastle and after castle added to it and a crow’s nest near the top of the mast had made it the most important warship of the late thirteenth century.[17] It had reached its structural limits by the fourteenth century. The reasons for the Cogs success were mainly its larger cargo capacity and also the political and economic circumstances of the Hanseatic period.[18]
In conclusion I believe the change was driven by the need for bigger capacity for cargo or men, depending on if it was going to be a naval or commerce ship. This was a product of ever increasing trade routes, which also led to the need for more speedy vessels. The need for more speed on the ship in turn led to the fusion of different uses of sails on the ships, also proving the ships to be slightly more reliable and seaworthy than single masted ships. The larger the ship, the more capable it is to carry more men and naval guns, and so this would have further developed the naval aspect of changes in shipbuilding. A combination of all these factors eventually produced ships that were capable of exploration of new areas because they did not have to keep docking at ports for provisions, they could travel further for a longer period of time, creating the opportunities to spend more time at sea travelling to different places. It can be argued the opening of long distance seaways created the demand for continuous improvement in ship design.[19] With improvements in transport, economic and political circumstances, the nature of trade changed, including the import and export of larger quantities and greater varieties of produce. I think the changes were inevitable but the Middle Ages were the perfect turning point to progress with these changes as I believe the ever increasing economy and trade connections and routes drove the changes and vice versa. No single factor changed ship building, one change or modification opened up more possibilities for more change elsewhere.
BibliographyMeier. D, Seafarers, Merchants and Pirates, (Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-44
Lewis. A.R, and Runyan. T.J, European Naval and Maritime History 300-1500, (Bloomington:1990) pp.74-75, 82-85, 137
Pryor. J.H, Geography, Technology and War, (Cambridge:1988) pp.25-39
Rose. S, The Medieval Sea, (London:2007) pp.13, 22-23
Runyan. T.J, Ships, Seafaring and Society, (Detroit:1987) pp.37-49
Unger. R.W, The Ship in the Medieval Economy, (London:1980) pp.122-123
[1] Timothy Runyan, ships, seafaring and society, (Detroit: 1987) pp.37-49
[2] John H. Pryor, geography, technology and war, (Cambridge:1988) pp.25-39
[3] John H. Pryor, geography, technology and war, (Cambridge:1988) pp.25-39
[4] Richard W. Unger, the ship in the medieval economy(London:1980) pp.122-123
[5] Richard W. Unger, the ship in the medieval economy, (London:1980) pp.122-123
[6] Susan Rose, the medieval sea, (London:2007) p.13
[7]D. Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates (Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-38
[8] A.R Lewis and T.J Runyan, European naval and maritime history, (Bloomington:1990) pp.83-85
[9] D.Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates, (Woodbridge:2006)pp.33-38
[10] Susan Rose, the medieval sea, (London:2007)pp.22-23
[11] A.R Lewis and T.J Runyan, European naval and maritime history, (Bloomington:1990)pp.82-83
[12] T.J Runyan, ships, seafaring and society,(Detroit:1987) p.41
[13] John H. Pryor, geography, technology and war, (Cambridge:1988)p.32
[14] A.R Lewis and T.J Runyan, European naval and maritime history (Bloomington:1990) pp.74-75
[15] D. Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates(Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-38
[16] D. Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates(Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-38
[17] A.R Lewis and T.J Runyan, European naval and maritime history(Bloomington:1990) p.137
[18] D. Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates(Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-38
[19] D. Meier, seafarers, merchants and pirates, (Woodbridge:2006) pp.33-44
No comments:
Post a Comment